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Dating the Past. Archaeologists can look into the past by using radiocarbon dating and by the close study of a certain volcanic stone called obsidian. Radiocarbon dating measures the amount of radioactive carbon in things that were once alive. It can measure things as old as 30,000 years.

Plants, animals, and people take in radio­active carbon during their life. After their death, atoms of carbon 14 fall apart at a constant rate. By measuring the amount of atoms that disappear, scientists can estimate the age of many artifacts—things left behind by early peoples.

The other means of dating ancient things is through the careful study of the volcanic stone obsidian. This stone takes in moisture from the air. The moisture leaves marks much the same as tree rings. By counting these marks, scientists can learn the approximate age of many things that have been found with obsidian. But radiocarbon dating is still the most widely used means of dating the past up to 30,000 years ago because obsidian is not often found in areas north of present-day Mexico. Rather, it is more often found in South America, where it was used for weap­ons, for decoration, and for trade by the early South American Indians.

1. What are two methods scientists use to estimate the age of ancient materials?

The Ice Ages. The earth has had four periods during which glaciers—large sheets of ice—formed. These periods are known as the Ice Ages. Scientists believe that the first Ice Age began as long as 1,500,000 years ago. The fourth and last Ice Age ended as recently as 10,000 years ago. This Ice Age lasted for more than 60,000 years. During the Ice Ages, glaciers sometimes more than one mile deep covered up to 32 percent of the northern re­gions of the earth (see maps on page 20).

These ice sheets changed the way the earth looked. The depth of the oceans, the tem­peratures and seasons of the earth, and the places where early Americans lived also were changed. For example, as the ocean water froze and the ice sheets grew, the surface level of the oceans dropped about 460 feet. Aver­age summer temperatures in North America dropped about 10 degrees. And as the glaciers moved slowly southward—only inches each year—they changed the surface of the earth by grinding out great holes in the surface of the earth.

When the surface level of the oceans dropped, shallow undersea land areas such as the Bering Strait land bridge appeared (see the map on page 21). This was a strip of land that connected Asia with North America. Over a period of 60,000 years, the Bering Strait land bridge changed from a marsh to a grassland. This fertile grazing land attracted herds of animals. Soon, many herds of animals, such as camels, horses, and mammoths, crossed back and forth across the Bering Strait land bridge. Early hunters followed these herds. As a result, groups of people crossed the Bering Strait land bridge from northeastern Asia to North America. These people became the first Americans. They were the ancestors of the American Indians.

2. How  many   Ice  Ages   has   the   earth experienced?

The New Americans. No one knows exactly when the first hunters from Asia came to North America. But by studying such things as the tools, weapons, and utensils made by the early Americans, archaeologists are able to understand how they lived. Clouis points— spearpoints made from chipped flint that have been found at many early campsites in the Arctic Circle—seem to show that people came to northern North America at least 25,000 years ago. But other discoveries have caused some people to think that the earliest people arrived in North America much earlier—per­haps between 40,000 and 100,000 years ago.

One of the first discoveries about early American life came in 1915. That year, George McJunkin, a black cowboy, found old bones while searching for lost cattle near Folsom, New Mexico. He told a friend about his un­usual find and showed him a spearpoint that he had found at the site. Later, the bones of 23 bison were found. These animals had been hunted and butchered centuries earlier. It was found that they were of a type that had been extinct for more than 10,000 years. But what caused the most excitement was not the bones but a spearpoint.

The spearpoint was wedged between two bison ribs. This proved that people were in southwestern North America by 10,000 B.C.— that is, 10,000 years before the birth of Christ. Many experts have suggested that this proved that earlier generations of hunters must have arrived in North America at least 25,000 years ago.

3. What   are   Clovis   points,   and   where were   they   found?

Early Migrations. At first, the earliest Ameri­cans lived in what is present-day Alaska. The early hunters then followed animal herds as the animals grazed farther south each year. Most archaeologists believe that these mi­grations lasted about 15.000 years. By about 10,000 years ago (about 8000 B.C.) people were living in most areas of the Americas. Evidence shows that by this time groups of people were living as far north as the Arctic Circle and as far south as Tierra del Fuego, the southernmost point of South America.

There were many differences in the lands in which these people lived. Physical features of the lands differed greatly, as did their climates. In some areas there were great numbers of animals. In other areas there were fewer ani­mals; but nuts, berries, roots, fruits, and wild grasses were plentiful. Thus, in some areas the early people could hunt and fish to provide for their livelihood. But in other parts of the Amer-icas, the early people depended upon gather­ing as many types of vegetation—plant life— as they could find for their living.

As each generation of the early Indians moved into new, unexplored regions, the Indians had to adapt—fit in—to new environ­ments. An environment is a place that has certain natural conditions such as a dry desert or a temperate forest. Some groups made new weapons to hunt small animals. Others found new ways of planting and gathering grains, roots, or berries in order to have enough food to eat In this way different cultures—ways of life—developed as the earliest settlers adapted to the many environments in the Americas.

4. What major factor led to the development of different cultures among the earliest Indians?

The Early American Indian Cultures. By about 10,000 years ago, early hunters and gatherers had settled into 5 major areas within the present-day United States. The first people to cross the land bridge into North America formed the early Arctic and Subarctic culture areas. These people settled in the north­ernmost lands of North America. They lived by hunting animals because the land was usually too cold throughout most of the year for farm­ing. Their technology—the making of tools and weapons—was limited at first to making spearpoints and darts.

As other groups moved southward, newer culture areas were formed. The Big-Game Hunters made up the largest group of early Americans. They lived on the Great Plains of North America. They hunted mammoths, mast­odons, and bison for food and used the skins of these animals for shelter and for clothing.

The people who formed the early Mountain and Plateau culture area lived in the Pacific Northwest. These people relied mainly upon fishing for their new way of life. Their culture did not spread to other areas of the new lands because fishing was not always available in other places.
 

Members of the early Desert culture area lived in what is now part of the southwestern region of the United States. These people were mostly food-gatherers rather than hunters. They also made baskets to hold the seeds that they had gathered. And they shaped stones to grind the seeds into flour. In addition, they made throwing sticks and darts to hunt small animals. Some people in this culture area later developed agriculture—the raising of crops for food—in the Americas about 7000 B.C.

The people of the early Eastern Woodland and Valley culture area were the most ad­vanced of the early cultures in North America. They lived in a rich fertile land that was mainly forest. From the trees in the forest they made farming tools and such weapons as bows, ar­rows, and spears for hunting. They made canoes to cross rivers and lakes. They also traded goods with neighboring groups and thus, shared new ideas. This helped to spread their way of life.

These earliest American societies—groups of people who share many of the same tra­ditions, institutions, and interests—in time de­veloped more-advanced Indian cultures. Each groups way of life continued to change with its needs and because of the conditions of the regions where the group lived.

5. Which  early  Indian  culture developed agriculture about 7000 b.c.?

  7. How did the earliest people arrive in North America?

  8. Why did the early Indian societies develop different cultures?

PREVIEW! Nearly one million Indians lived in North America before the arrival of the Euro­peans. This number constituted seven major Indian culture areas of North America.

Five of these major culture areas were located in what is today the continental United States. Largely because of their natural environment, these Indian cultures were different from one another in many ways.

Objectives
 After you read this section, you will be able to:

• list ways in which the major Indian culture groups were similar;

• identify and locate the five major Indian cultures of the United States;

Similarities Among North American Indian Cultures. There were a number of similarities among the Indian cultures of North America. For example, most of the Indian societies in North America were divided into tribes. In general, a tribe was made up of a group of people who lived in the same area. They spoke the same language, and they held the same religious beliefs. Some tribes were also divided into smaller sections called bands. A band was usually made up of no more than ten people because there was often not enough food in one area to support an entire tribe. Therefore, by organizing into small bands, the people were better able to roam about hunting and gathering food.

Another similarity among most Indians was a belief in spirits. Many Indians thought that spirits could be found in nature. For example, some Indians believed that spirits dwelt in the sun, in the moon, in rain, and in some plants and animals.

In general, wars were not common among most Indian tribes. When war did break out, battles could bring great honor to the braves—the warriors. But war was often just a ceremony to show bravery. Touching the enemy with a coup stick—a ceremonial spear without a point—during battle often brought more honor than the killing of an enemy. This was because the warrior showed both courage and mercy.

Most tribes were organized in a somewhat democratic way. Councils were often selected by the people. These councils made the most-important decisions for all the people by giving advice to the chief.

1. How were some Indian tribes divided?

Indians of the Eastern Woodland. More than 35 tribes lived in the Eastern Woodland and Valley culture area. Some tribes in this part of the country were the Delaware, the Iroquois, the Fox, and the Cherokee.

There were many resources in the Eastern Woodland area. There was much small game and fish, and the soil was good for farming. For many Indians, farming was the major way to make a living. The Indians grew such crops as corn, tomatoes, squash, wheat, and pea­nuts.

The Eastern Woodland Indians used slash-and-burn agriculture. That is, they cleared the land of trees by cutting them down with crude saws. The tree stumps and underbrush that were left were then burned. This kind of land clearance was fast, but it quickly wore out the land. The Indians would then slash and burn other areas when their fields became worn out.

Because the Eastern Woodland area had rich soil, a food surplus—extra food—could be grown. Surplus food was often traded with neighboring tribes. In this way an economic system based on trade began.

Farming led to other changes in the Eastern Woodland area as well. No longer did all people in a tribe need to search for food. They could perform other tasks for the tribe. For example, some people became shamans— medicine men who also had political and social power. Still others had time to become warriors, builders, or artisans—people who make things by hand. As the Eastern Woodland tribes developed new ways of life, they increased their trade with other tribes. In this way new ideas and new ways of hunting, farming, or building were shared.

The Iroquois people made up one of the most advanced societies in the Eastern Wood­land area. The Iroquois people lived in the central part of present-day Mew York State. Their society was made up of five tribes: the Mohawk, the Cayuga, the Onondaga, the Oneida, and the Seneca.

Women held real power in Iroquois society. Iroquois men were the hunters, the food-gatherers, and the warriors. The women raised the children and tended the crops. However, the women also owned the houses, the fields, and the crops of a village. They also chose the members of the tribal council. If a council member did not behave in the way the women believed he should, the women could remove him from the council.

Unlike many North American Indians, the Iroquois tribes often fought wars with other tribes over hunting grounds. To help make decisions about warfare, the Iroquois tribes joined together and formed the League of Five Nations in the mid-1500's. This group became the largest organization of Indians north of Mexico.
 

2. What effect did a food surplus have upon the way of living among the Eastern Woodland tribes?
 

Indians of the Plains. Nearly 40 tribes lived on the Great Plains of North America. Some tribes of the Great Plains were the Cheyenne, the Comanche, the Arapaho, and the Iowa.

The Plains Indians lived in small villages that were usually built near rivers and creeks. Houses were made of sod and wood and were then covered with mud. The Plains Indians raised many crops, such as corn, squash, and beans, in the rich, soft soil near the rivers.

The men of the tribes followed buffalo herds in the summer. A buffalo that had been killed was taken back to the village, where it was butchered for food. Clothing, bedding, tools, weapons, and utensils were made from the hide and the bones of the buffalo. In the fall, the Indian hunters returned to their villages. They helped to pick the crops that the women had planted and had cared for during the summer.

   3. How did the Plains Indians use the buffalo that they had killed during summer hunting?

Indians of the Northwest. Ten major Indian tribes lived along the northwest coast of North America. The Northwest Coast Indians in­cluded tribes such as the Chinook and the Kwakiutl. These Indians hunted game. They also gathered wild berries and fruit. Fishing, however, was the basis of their way of life. The Indians fished in the Pacific Ocean and in riv­ers and streams. They built their villages near the ocean or near rivers—close to the basis of their way of life.

The Indians made their houses out of wood because much of the northwest coast was covered by forestland. Many tools, utensils, and weapons were also made from wood. Large fishing ships were built by digging out or by burning out the trunks of giant redwood trees. And, as their ancestors had done, they made large totem poles—tall, hand-carved poles that told about the leader of a family.

Most tribes of the Northwest were not dem­ocratic. The wealthiest families made the important decisions for each village. People who owned many things were thought to be wealthy. They proved their wealth by hold­ing a potlatch—a party that lasted many days. It was a chance for the party giver to prove his wealth by giving away many presents. Holding expensive potlatches was necessary to maintain the position as one of the village's most powerful families.

   4. What was the main food supply of the Northwest Coast Indians?

Indians of the West. There were more than 20 major tribes in the West. These tribes be­longed to the California Indian society or to the Great Basin society. The California Indians lived in the area of what is today California. The Great Basin Indians lived in the land be­tween the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges.

The California Indians lived in an area that had a mild climate. It was rich in foods ,that could be gathered, such as nuts, berries, and wild grains. As a result, the California Indians did not have to struggle to live. They ate the foods they could easily find. They also hunted small animals, and they fished in the many streams and rivers in their area.

The Great Basin tribes lived in a more dif­ficult place than did the California Indians. The land was hot and had very little water. Few plants could grow there, and few animals could live in the area. Thus, the Great Basin Indians had to move their campsites often to search for food.

  5. What effect did the environment have on the life-style of the Great Basin Indians?

Indians of the Southwest. More than 15 major tribes lived in the lands that are now northern Mexico, New Mexico, Arizona, and southern Utah. The earliest Indians in this part of the new lands were the Desert people. Some of their descendants were the people of the Pueblo tribes, which included the Hopi, the Taos, and the Zuni peoples. Later Indian settlers in the Southwest were the Apache and the Navaho.

The Pueblo tribes built one of the most ad­vanced societies in North America. Their so­ciety was very democratic in that everyone was considered equal. Decisions were made by the group. Work was shared by all the Indians. In part, this is why Pueblo society was very peaceful.

Although the land where the Pueblos lived was very dry, the Pueblo Indians were farmers. They were able to farm because they had learned to irrigate the land. That is, they brought in water from nearby rivers and streams for growing crops. The Pueblos then traded their surplus food with other tribes. They also stored corn and other foods in artis­tic pottery jars. In addition, the Pueblos wove cotton into cloth, which was then used in mak­ing their clothing.

c1s2 Section Review
7. In   what  ways   were   the  major North  American   Indian culture groups similar?

8. What were the five major Indian culture areas in what is today the United States?

9. Why did a trading system develop among the Indians of the Eastern Woodland?